Investigating the Physiological Response of Anxiety Essay Example for Free

Investigating the Physiological Response of Anxiety Essay Investigating the physiological response of anxiety through general knowledge and math questionnaires, with a focus of inducing anxiety through music. The aim of this study was to investigate the physiological effects associated with math anxiety, with a further aim to explore this in relation to tense music exposure. It was hypothesised that a maths questionnaire would produce a significantly higher anxiety response than a general knowledge questionnaire. It was also hypothesised that exposure to tense music would produce a significantly greater anxiety response than silence. Furthermore, it would be expected to observe a significant interaction between the music condition and question type. The results of a mixed subject’s factorial ANOVA revealed that participants’ heart rate was significantly higher when presented with the math questionnaire over the general knowledge questionnaire. The presence of tense music did not significantly influence the level of physiological arousal. The only conclusion drawn therefore is that math questions elicit greater physiological arousal than general knowledge questions. Anxiety, like fear, is an emotion. It is a normal and totally necessary biological survival mechanism which everybody experiences. It tells us that something is a threat to our survival and motivates us to confront or avoid that threat. (Simmons Daw, 1994). Fear can be distinguished from anxiety in that fear focuses on specific situations or objects and occurs in their proximity, whereas anxiety occurs in anticipation of such. The amount of anxiety we feel should be proportionate to the reality of the threat posed by the situation, however, sometimes this is not the case. It is important to realise that this biological response is in essence the same as that experienced by other animals. However, in humans who have the power of thought or conceptualisation, the ability to anticipate fear or anxiety itself becomes part of the cycle of anxiety and makes the problem more complex. (Simmons Daw, 1994) The concept of anxiety can be dated back as far as Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC). The basis of Aristotle’s philosophy was that for every trait: there is an excess, a deficiency and between the two, a mean the mean being the optimum or most desirable amount of the trait. For shame, he indicates that an excess of the trait would be shamelessness, the mean, modesty, and the deficiency being shyness. This can be related to anxiety in that someone who is shy can be said to be feeling too much anxiety whereas a shameless person therefore lacks a certain amount of anxiety. Aristotle’s aim was for one to be conscious of experiencing the optimum amount of anxiety given the situation or circumstance. (The Anxiety Support Network, Accessed 25/02/2012). Many people suffer from continual unrealistic, unfounded amounts of fear and anxiety. This is where anxiety and fear build up and exceed rational and beneficial levels, known as anxiety disorders. The most common anxiety disorder is that of simple phobias, estimated to affect one in ten (Barondes 1993; cited Wicken 2009). A more serious anxiety disorder is that of panic disorder. This can be characterized by the rapid onset of very apparent, overt physiological symptoms such as shortness of breath, irregularities in heartbeat and a variety of other autonomic symptoms. Somebody with a social anxiety disorder would be characterized by an excessive fear of being exposed to the scrutiny of other people, leading to avoidance of social situations. Furthermore, generalised anxiety disorder consumes one’s life with excessive anxiety and worry causing major disruption. (Carlson, 2010). Some people suffer from mathematics related anxiety. This has been characterized as an adverse emotional reaction to math or the prospect of doing math (Richardson Suinn, 1972; cited Micke et al 2011). Individuals with high maths anxiety tend to perform poorly when presented with mathematics stimuli (Cates Rhymer, 2003; cited Bai et al) One of the key cognitive mechanisms in math problem solving, and a significant area of research within the math cognition domain, is the utilization of the working memory system (Ashcraft Kirk, 2001; LeFevre, DeStafano, Coleman, Shanahan, 2005; cited Legg and Locker 2009). The anxiety response is controlled by the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system. The autonomic division operates mainly beyond our control, mostly below consciousness and can be entirely automatic responses. The autonomic division comprises two parts: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic system prepares us for action in the face of possible danger. This is commonly referred to and known as the ‘Fight-Flight’ reaction. Contrarily the parasympathetic system acts to redress the balance once the crisis has passed. (Simmons Daw, 1994). The way in which we are ‘prepared for action’ is by the release of neurotransmitters adrenaline and noradrenaline from the adrenal medulla (Wickens 2009). This leads to an increase in heart rate and breathing as well as increased blood flow to the skeletal muscles. The limbic system of the brain contains a number of structures that contribute to emotional behaviour, one of which being the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus has been shown to play an important role in the regulation of the autonomic nervous system and emotional behaviour. This has been demonstrated by the work Philip Bard (1930, cited Wickens 2009) where lesions to the hypothalamus of cats eliminated rage whereas lesions to the cerebral cortex tended to provoke such. Another structure of the limbic system, the amygdala, has been shown to be particularly important in regulating aggression and fear. This was demonstrated by Kluver and Bucy in the late 1930’s (cited Wickens 2009) where rhesus monkeys displayed dramatically reduced fear and aggression following lesions to the amygdala. Conversely, electrical stimulation of this structure in humans evoked fear and aggression. Another constituent of the limbic system is the hippocampus. Although mainly concerned with memory, it has been shown to be of interest in the study of anxiety. A neurobiological model known as the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) was proposed by Grey (1982, cited Hoffman Kim 2006). This system proposes to be the basis of aversive motivational functions. ‘It is sensitive to conditioned aversive and extreme novel stimuli and is activated in response to punishment and cues of frustrative non-reward’ (Hoffman Kim 2006). Its underlying neural circuits are believed to play an important role in anticipating and assessing threats. Contrary to the BIS, the Behavioural Approach System (BAS) ‘underlies appetitive motivational functions and governs behaviours that are intended to maximise rewards and minimize punishment’ (Fowles 1980, cited Hoffman Kim 2006) Research by Gray into the effects anxiolytic drugs would have on an animals behavioural response to punishment lead to a belief that the BIS represented an anxiety system. Further, trait anxiety may be a temperamental marker for the BIS, potentially allowing the assumption that trait anxiety reflects individual differences in the reactivity of the system. Trait anxiety has been defined as ‘an individuals predisposition to respond’ (Spielberger, 1966, cited Hoffman Kim). This predisposition can affect the anxiety response in a number of situations such as physical danger, social evaluation and ambiguous or daily routines. State anxiety however has been defined as a transitory emotion characterized by physiological arousal and consciously perceived feelings of apprehension, dread and tension (Spielberger, 1966). Two facets of state anxiety have been proposed: cognitive worry and autonomic emotional. In 1983, Spielberger developed the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) as a unidimensional psychometric assessment of anxiety. Endler et al (1991) however took a multidimensional approach to assessing both state and trait anxiety with the development of the Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales. It was proposed by Fowles in 1980 (cited Hoffman Kim) that electrodermal activity (EDA) and heart rate (HR) may be good physiological indicators of the BIS and the BAS. This was explored by Hoffman and Kim (2006). The prediction was that behavioural inhibition and trait anxiety would be associated with an increase in skin conductance level but not heart rate. From their results it was found that trait anxiety predicted skin conductance level, however behavioural inhibition did not. Neither of the two predicted heart rate reactivity. Therefore the conclusion was that skin conductance level is a better autonomic indicator of trait anxiety than heart rate. Music therapy is an alternative therapy that may improve patients’ health and well being (Guzzetta 1988; cited Nilsson 2009). The auditory perception of the music is located in the auditory centre in the temporal lobe, which sends signals to the thalamus, the mid brain, pons, amygdala, medulla and hypothalamus. The physiological effect of music is proposed to act via the hypothalamus and its regulation of adrenaline and other neuro-hormones (Myskaja Lindbaeck 2000; cited Nilsson 2009). Registrations through EEG have shown that music can decrease the bioelectrical activity in the brain from predominant beta waves to alpha and theta waves, which can have consequences for reduction of anxiety, tension and sleeplessness (Shawn 1999; cited Nilsson 2009). It is logical for one to assume that if music can have positive effects on physiology, then surely it can have negative effects too. The present study aimed to investigate the physiological effects associated with math anxiety, with a further aim to explore this in relation to tense music exposure. It was hypothesised that a maths questionnaire would produce a significantly higher anxiety response than a general knowledge questionnaire. It was also hypothesised that exposure to tense music would produce a significantly greater anxiety response than silence. Furthermore, it would be expected to observe a significant interaction between the music condition and question type. Method Design This study employed a 2 x 2 mixed subjects design. Question type was manipulated at 2 levels, being either math questions or general knowledge. All participants answered both questionnaires. Music was also manipulated at two levels. Participants were equally allocated between either the tense music condition or the control condition of silence. Participants’ heart rate was measured. Participants Sixteen undergraduate students from the University of Central Lancashire were used in the undertaking of this study. A method of opportunity sampling was employed during recruitment. No note of age or gender was made. Materials A twenty-six item math questionnaire (Appendix 1) and a twenty-six item general knowledge questionnaire (Appendix 2) were used as the foundation of the study. Each questionnaire was presented on a computer screen for thirty seconds, in which time the participants had to attempt as many questions as possible. The general knowledge questionnaire was presented first, followed by the math questions. A stopwatch was used to time the thirsty second period. For the tense music condition, computer speakers were used to play the thirty second tense music track. Each participant’s level of physiological arousal was monitored using a galvanic skin response-heart rate monitor, although this study only used the heart rate response element of the equipment. Procedure Participants who agreed to take part in the study were required to attend the School of Psychology at the University of Central Lancashire. Once there, they were individually taken to a lab room where they were asked to take a seat and read through a brief sheet in order to be aware of what was about to happen. The heart rate monitor which was connected to a laptop was then placed on the index finger of the participant. Once the participant was comfortable they were provided with a pen and plain sheet of paper and asked to remain calm for thirty seconds whilst a resting heart rate was recorded. After the thirty seconds had elapsed, the general knowledge questionnaire was presented and the participant had thirty seconds to answer as many questions as they could. They were notified at the end of the thirty second period. The math questionnaire was then presented following the same procedure as previous. For the eight participants who undertook the tense music condition, the procedure was the same, however, they were informed that once they began answering the questions, a 30 second music track would be played by the experimenter. The heart rate monitor recorded the heart rate (beats per minute) of each participant ten times per second. Upon completion of the study, participants were given a debrief sheet outlining the true aims of the experiment. Results The raw data collected consisted of the recorded heart rate response of each participant (Appendix 3). Heart rate was measured ten times per second for each of the thirty second periods – rest, general knowledge questionnaire and the math questionnaire. It was also noted whether the participant took part in the music or silence condition. The raw data was amended (Appendix 4) before being placed into SPSS statistical analysis software. This was done by calculating the mean average of the thirty second rest period and subtracting it from the calculated mean average of the thirty second period where the participant was answering questions. This was in order to discover the average heart rate increase. The full statistical output can be found in Appendix 5. The means and standard deviations of the average heart rate increase (BPM) for the general knowledge and math questions in relation to whether music was present or not were calculated using SPSS. Table 1: A table to show the means and standard deviations of the average heart rate increase (BPM) for the general knowledge and math questions in relation to whether music was present or not. It is clear from the results table above that there was very limited increase in the mean average heart rate between the music and silence conditions of both question types.. It can, however, be clearly observed that the mean heart rate increase for the maths questions is greater than that of the general knowledge questions. The standard deviations appear to show a moderate spread of scores. A Mixed-subjects factorial ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of question type [F (1,14) = 27.48, p .001, Eta2 = .66], with a higher average heart rate increase in the maths question over the general knowledge questions . There was a non-significant main effect of music [F (1,14) = .001, p = .972., Eta2 = .000]. The interaction between question type and music was non-significant [F (1,14) = .386, p = .545, Eta2 = .027]. Due to the lack of a significant interaction effect it was not necessary to conduct post-hoc tests. Discussion The aim of this study was to investigate the physiological effects associated with math anxiety, with a further aim to explore this in relation to tense music exposure. Sixteen participants had their heart rate continually monitored whilst answering a math questionnaire and a general knowledge questionnaire. Half of the participants undertook the questionnaires whilst being exposed to tension provoking music. The results of a mixed subjects factorial ANOVA revealed that participants heart rate was significantly higher when presented with the math questionnaire over the general knowledge questionnaire. The presence of tense music did not significantly influence the level of physiological arousal. The hypothesis that a maths questionnaire would produce significantly more anxiety than a general knowledge questionnaire was fully met during the course of this investigation. The hypothesis that exposure to tense music would produce significantly more anxiety than silence was not validated by the results of this study. Furthermore, the hypothesis that there would be a significant interaction between the music condition and question type was not substantiated by the results of this study. The significant result discovered in this study coincides relatively well with previous research into maths anxiety. Previous research has shown that individuals with high maths anxiety tend to perform poorly when presented with mathematics stimuli (Cates Rhymer, 2003; cited Bai et al). It is necessary to note however that the participants used within the present study were not subjected to prior assessment of math anxiety. Therefore, a distinction between a mathematical anxiety predisposition and poor performance cannot be made, taking into account also that scores from the mathematical questionnaire were not used at any point in this study. It should only be inferred from the results of this study that math questions elicit greater physiological arousal than general knowledge questions. This therefore, in part, relates well to Richardson Suinn’s 1972 characterization of math anxiety as an adverse emotional reaction to math or the prospect of doing math. It has been demonstrated by the work of Ashcraft et al in 2001 that the working memory system is a significant area of research within the math domain. The working memory system is of course directly relatable to the hippocampus. The Behavioural Inhibition System proposed by Gray has been shown to be directly related to the hippocampus and in turn, anxiety. Previous research into the effect music has on ones physiology has conclusively proven music can aid relaxation. This was clearly demonstrated by the work of Shawn (1999) where it was shown that music can decrease the bioelectrical activity in the brain from predominant beta waves to alpha and theta waves, having consequences of reducing anxiety, tension and sleeplessness. Research in this area, for obvious reasons, has directed its attention towards investigating the relaxing properties music can have. It was the intention of this study however to investigate the contrary. It may be necessary here to discuss the relationship between the biological mechanisms activated when listening to music, and those activated when one feels anxiety. Clear similarities can be observed between the two. It can be noted from the work of Myskaja Lindbaeck in 2000 that the physiological effect music has is proposed to act via the hypothalamus and its regulation of adrenaline and other neuro-hormones. This is distinctly similar to the action of the sympathetic system of the peripheral nervous system, in that, adrenaline amongst other neurotransmitters are released from the adrenal medulla. Music acts upon many of the same structures in the brain that have been found to have links with emotional regulation. The hypothalamus and amygdala being key examples. Within this study there were several methodological issues that have to be taken into consideration. First and foremost the method used to obtain data. This was done using only a heart rate monitor. It was demonstrated by Fowles in 1980 that skin conductance level is clearly a better indictor of anxiety. Therefore any further research into this area should use this method of data collection also. It may be wise to include a third level to the music variable in any further research. The third level should most definitely be a relaxing music condition in order to observe any oppositional results. Judging by previous research it would be expected that a significant reduction in math anxiety would be observed in participants who were exposed relaxing music. The tense music played to participants in the present study was administered at the same time the participant commenced attempting the questionnaire. This leads to difficulty in making a distinction between the tense music being the cause of increased physiological arousal, or whether it was the questionnaire alone as the cause. A possible solution to this could be to expose the participants to music prior to the undertaking of the questionnaire. In conclusion, it can be implied that anybody who suffers from anxiety in any form is likely to find soothing music a useful remedy, given the biological mechanisms involved. It can be inferred here therefore that a person who listens to genres of music such as heavy rock and metal, would most probably benefit from incorporating more harmonious music into their lives, however this theory was not upheld by the results of this. Further research in this area could focus on this. References Bai, H., Wang, L., Pan, W., Frey, M. (undated) Measuring Mathematics Anxiety: Psychometric Analysis of a Bidimensional Affective Scale. Journal of Instructional Psychology 36(3): 185 – 193 Carlson, N. R. (2010) Physiology of Behaviour. 10th edition. Pearson: Allyn Bacon den Boer J. A., Sitsen, J. M. (1994). Handbook of depression and anxiety. A biological approach. New York: Marcel Dekker Endler, N.S., Kocovki, N.L. (2001) State and trait anxiety revisited. Journal of anxiety disorders 15(3): 231-245 Legg, A. M., Locker, L. Jr. (2009). Math performance and its relationship to math anxiety and metacognition. North American Journal of Psychology 11 (3): 471-486 Micke, A. M., Mateo, J., Kozak, M. N., Foster, K., Beilock, S. L. (2011). Choke or thrive? The relationship between salivary cortisol and math performance depends on individual differences in working memory and math anxiety. American Psychological Association 11(4): 1000 – 1005 Nilsson, U. (2009) Music and Health; How to use music in surgical care. International Academy for Design and Health. 103 – 109 Simmons, M., Daw, P. (1994). Stress, Anxiety, Depression. A practical workbook. Oxon: Winslow Press Wickens, A. (2004) Introduction to Biopsychology. Pearson: Prentice Hall http://www.anxietysupportnetwork.com/articles/aristotle_anxiety.php Aristotle’s View of Anxiety. Accessed 25/02/2012

Prison Term Policy Recommendation Essay Example for Free

Prison Term Policy Recommendation Essay As the criminologist advisor to a member of the Pennsylvania state legislature, I have been selected to conduct research for a bill that would double the maximum prison term for anyone convicted of armed robbery. The bill is popular however it is unknown if it will do much good. It is my job to make recommendations in regards to whether the bill being voted on will be beneficial to everyone in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The prison term policies are sentencing guidelines that are created by Congress and the State Legislature to provide judges with bases for sentencing those individuals found guilty of committing a crime to ensure that each person is treated equal without discrimination (sentencing guidelines, 2010). There are four offenses that make up what is known as violent crime which are murder, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault. According to the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program a violent crime is any crime that involves force or threat of force to others (Department of Justice, 2006). Currently the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania’s prison terms for armed robbery are as follows: for the first offense of a violent crime a minimum of five years, for a second offense of a violent crime a minimum of 10 years, and for the third offense of a violent crime a minimum of 25 years total confinement or life imprisonment which is accordance with 42 Pa. C.S.  §9714 (Pennsylvania Commission on Sentencing, 2008). Pennsylvania’s Uniform Crime Reporting tracks all forms of Robbery together. According to the Pennsylvania Uniform Crime Reporting System, in 2008 there were 18,751 reported robbery offenses which is equivalent to 51 per day or one every 28 minutes and 2 seconds (PA UCRS, 2008). These figures showed a decrease of 2.5% from 2007 which had 19,239 reported robberies (PA UCRS, 2008). Robbery made up 5.4% of the crime index and 37.2%  of the violent crime index in Pennsylvania in the year 2008 (PA UCRS, 2008). The reported robbery rates in Pennsylvania in 2008 were 150.6 per 100,000 inhabitants (PA UCRS, 2008). Recidivism is defined as a habitual relapse into crime, which is a problem that is faced within the criminal justice system. Pennsylvania tracks information on inmates released in order to find the recidivism rates. In 2002 Pennsylvania Department of Corrections released 1,711 inmates charged with robbery and within three years 46.6% returned to prison, which was a decline from 2000 when 1,776 inmates charged for robbery were released and 52.8% of the inmates returned within three years (PADOC, 2006). A study was conducted in Italy in 2006 when the Collective Clemency Bill set all inmates with less than three years remaining on their sentence free however if the inmates were convicted of another crime within the next five years, the remainder of their sentence would be added onto the new sentence. This allowed studies to be conducted to see if longer prison terms would deter criminals. Studies showed that increasing the sentence by 50% should reduce recidivism rates by about 35% in seven months (Crime/Punishment, 2010). With inmates comes a bill to cover the housing, feeding, and medical costs of each inmate. The cost to house a prisoner in the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections (PADOC) is $ 69 per day (Barnes, 2010). In July 2010 the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections housed 51,281 inmates, at $69 per day that amounts to $3,538,389 per day or $1,291,151,985 per year (PADOC, 2010). There are multiple benefits of the bill being passed to double the maximum prison term for those convicted of armed robbery. The study that was conducted in Italy shows that longer prison sentences lowers the recidivism rates among offenders, which over time would reduce the population of the already over populated prisons. The criminals would be off the streets for a longer period of time preventing them from committing future crimes. Longer prison sentences could be a deterrent for some criminals. Robbery is one of the top two violent crimes committed in Pennsylvania and the longer sentence imposed on those criminals may lower the rate of armed robbery however it could cause an increase in other crimes. If the bill were passed and new prisons built to accommodate all inmates there would be more jobs available such as corrections officers, nurses, doctors, dentists, psychologists, and office personnel. These job openings would not only assist with job market, but also with having mo re  tax payers to assist with the money needed for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania budget. There are also multiple disadvantages to the bill being passed to double the maximum prison term for those convicted of armed robbery. Pennsylvania prisons are overpopulated as it is and by imposing longer sentences the problem is going to continue to get worse. As discussed earlier the prison population in June 2010 was 51,281 however the occupational bed capacity of the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections is only 43,872 (PADOC, 2010). The prisons are already operating at 116.9% of capacity and by passing this bill those rates are going to increase at a more rapid pace than they already are (PADOC, 2010). As discussed earlier the cost to house an inmate in Pennsylvania Department of Corrections is $69 per day which if this bill is passed a much larger budget is going to be required because inmates are going to be housed for a longer period of time. The need may arise for more prisons due to the longer prison terms which would require a much larger budget. With more prisons comes the need for more employees to operate those prisons which also is going to have an effect on the prison budget. Where is the money going to come from to meet the increase in the budget? The tax payers are the ones that are going to have to suffer to make the funding available for the prison system budget. Other crime rates may rise as a domino effect because criminals may turn to other crimes that are known to carry a lighter sentence if they are caught. If the bill is passed it is not required that judges sentence those convicted of the crime to the maximum sentence. Judges are required to look at mitigating and aggravating circumstances when sentencing individuals found guilty of committing crimes. Judges look at prior criminal history, personal life situation, was anyone hurt during the crime, or sometimes the remorse the person shows toward the crime they committed. This bill could be beneficial in the cases of habitual offenders because there would be stricter sentencing for the first offense rather than having to wait until the second or even third offense. As we all know with anything there is pros and cons. There appears to be more cons in this situation than there are pros which should make the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania legislature take a second look into whether or not passing this bill is going to be the most beneficial thing for the Commonwealth as a whole. I would find that it would not be beneficial to double the maximum sentence for those individuals  charged with committing armed robbery. The evidence shows that it would cost the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania more money to double the sentence for armed robbery. The evidence also proves that close to 50% of people convicted of armed robbery are going to reoffend which is going to bring them back to the criminal justice system and with one offense already committed they will receive a longer sentence the second time around. This also allows for those who are actually capable of being rehabilitated to have the chance to prove themselves without having to spend 10 years in pri son. References Barnes, T. (2010). Post-Gazette. Pa. sentencing guidelines eyed. Retrieved on August 31, 2010 from http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/10002/1025303-454.stm Crime/Punishment (2010). Do stiffer sentences act as a crime deterrent? Retrieved on August 31, 2010 from http://crime.about.com/od/prevent/a/deterrence.htm Department of Justice Federal Bureau of Investigation (2006). Crime in the United States 2004. Violent Crime. Retrieved on August 31, 2010 from http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius_04/offenses_reported/violent_crime/index.html Pennsylvania Commission on Sentencing (2008). Retrieved August 31, 2010 from http://pcs.la.psu.edu/guidelines/sentencing/sentencing-statutes-and-programs/related-statutes/mandatory-minimum-sentences/SentMandMin122008.pdf Pennsylvania Department of Corrections (2010). Monthly population report June 2010. Retrieved on August 31, 2010 from http://www.cor.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/research___statistics/10669/monthly_population_reports/568195 Pennsylvania Department of Corrections (2006). Recidivism in Pennsylvania State Correctional Institutions 1999-2004. Retrieved on August 31, 2010 from http://www.cor.st ate.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/research___statistics/10669/annual_reports/567085 Pennsylvania Uniform Crime Reporting System (2008). Annual Report Robbery. Retrieved on August 31, 2010 from http://ucr.psp.state.pa.us/UCR/Reporting/Annual/AnnualFrames.asp?year=2008 Sentencing guidelines (2010). Retrieved August 30, 2010 from http://www.willdefend.com/CM/Custom/TOCSentencingGuidelines.asp

Quantitative Chemical Analysis

Quantitative Chemical Analysis Quantitative chemical analysis, which is commonly referred to as stoichiometry, is the quantitative relationship between the reactants and the products in a balanced chemical equation. The term stoichiometry is a combination of two words derived from the Greek language: stoicheion (meaning element) and metron (meaning measure). Stoichiometric calculations are dependent upon the law of conservation of mass which states that all matter cannot be created nor destroyed, thus in any chemical reaction that occurs in a closed system the mass of the products is equivalent to the mass of the reactants. Due to such laws of nature, a chemical equation must be balanced in order for the amounts to remain equivalent following the reaction (Chemical Stoichiometry). The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation represent the ratio between the particles in a perfect reaction, where all the particles in a chemical experiment will react. These ratios are also classified as the stoichiometric or mola r ratio, which can be compared between any of the compounds in a reaction, which includes both reactants and products. These ratios can be used interchangeably for any particle in stoichiometric calculations because moles simply represent a specific amount of particles, thus the molar ratio within the equation is the proportional relation of each element or compound to one another. Stoichiometry is also useful when calculating mass ratios because if the mass of any substance in a reaction is known, the mass of any other substance can be calculated (â€Å"Reaction Stoichiometry†). Stoichiometric calculations are very important in real life applications because having the accurate proportions of any item is important when limited amounts of a certain reactant is present, which is useful to reduce cost and waste. Additionally, stoichiometry is significant in the field of chemistry as chemical calculations can be used to prevent overdose since many chemicals may be toxic in inade quate amounts. An example of an everyday stoichiometric calculation can be displayed through the act of making a smore. Two crackers, one marshmallow, and three chocolate squares must be used to formulate an entire smore (as show in figure 1). One can only be formed if exact amounts of each ingredient is used. However if only 1 cracker is available, a smore could no longer be formed. Figure 1. Stoichiometry is most commonly used when one reactant completely reacts with the other in a chemical reaction. These absolute amounts are called theoretical yield. On the other hand, when performing a lab, the reactants will not be in perfect stoichiometric amounts because of potential errors that occur during an experiment. Therefore the actual yield of an experiment may not correspond to the theoretical yield. In order to find the percent yield, the theoretical yield must be divided by the actual yield and multiplied by one hundred. Examples of errors that may result in loss of yield include temperature, surface area, pressure, medium, the purity of the reactants, procedural mistakes, poor technique, lab accidents, or miscalculations (Theoretical and Percent Yield). As well, competing reactions can also contribute to the loss of yield. These reactions occur at the same time as the initial reaction, and consequently use the compounds and element in the initial reactions. Due to the many factors can contribute to the amount of yield lost, it is important that their effects are considered once performing the experiment. In stoichiometric calculations there will most often be leftover reactants causing a short supply, due to the imperfect quantities of each reactant due to the potential errors or an insufficient amount of a reactant. In an equation that is not in a perfect stoichiometric ratio, a limiting and excess reactant will always be present. The limiting reactant is the one that forms the smaller amount of product, thus stopping and limiting the reaction after it is completely consumed. While, the excess reactant is the one that is leftover after the reaction is stopped by the limiting reactant (Chemical Stoichiometry). Using the smore as an example, if an insufficient amount of ingredients are present than a smore cannot be formed. If there are four crackers, one marshmallow, but only five pieces of chocolate squares, only one smore will be assembled instead of two. Hence, in this scenario the chocolate squares would be the limiting reactant. Even though the chocolate squares represent the la rgest number of ingredient, an inadequate amount is present therefore the rest of the ingredients will appear in excess. It is important to always use the limiting reactant to determine the final product. If an excess reactant is used, there would not be enough of the limiting reactant to create the product. In addition, it is not possible to determine the limiting reactant instantly from the masses given, since stoichiometry is in proportions by moles. The mass of each compound cannot be compared because the molecular weight of each compound is different. Nevertheless, compounds can be compared by moles since molecules react on a molecular level which makes the amount consistent throughout the chemical equation. For example, the amount of one mole of hydrogen is equivalent to one mole of carbon, although one mole of hydrogen weighs 1.01 grams while a mole of carbon weighs 12.01g. Therefore, in all standard stoichiometric calculations any measurement must first be converted into mol es in order to be compared to another (MOLS, PERCENTS, and STOICHIOMETRY). The purpose of the lab performed is to produce two grams of copper through a single displacement reaction between Copper (II) Chloride Dihydrate and solid Aluminum. When determining whether a single displacement reaction will take place, the activity series (See Apendix _) must be considered. Given that Aluminum is higher on the activity series than copper, meaning that it is more reactive, the Aluminum will begin to bond with the chlorine, thus replacing the Copper in the Copper (II) Chloride compound. This would result in the Copper (II) Chloride compound to break apart, creating solid Copper and Aluminum Chloride solution. Another factor that must be considered when performing a single displacement reaction, is that the compound must be changed into an aqueous solution, in which the element would then be placed. Consequently, Copper (II) Chloride Dihydrate must be dissolved in water when creating an aqueous solution. An exact amount of 4.23 grams of aqueous Copper (II) Chloride an d as well as 0.566 grams of Aluminum must be used in order for a perfect reaction to occur, which was established through stoichiometric calculations (See Apendix _). However, this experiment required Aluminum to act as the excess reactant, therefore 1 gram of Aluminum was obtained instead of 0.566 grams. Additionally, since only Copper (II) Chloride Dihydrate is available, and the anhydrous form was used in the balanced chemical equation, the amount of the hydrous form must be found in order to identify how much must be utilized. Through stoichiometric calculations (See Appendix _), 5.36 grams of Copper (II) Chloride Dihydrate would need to be acquired for a perfect reaction to take place. Although, since lab data is not generally accurate due to procedural inaccuracies, the actual yield obtained during the trial may not correspond to the theoretical yield, which was determined using the stoichiometric calculations. Without error exactly two grams would be produced, however an oxid ization process will occur which will consequently add on additional weight to the solid copper product. Due to oxidization and as well the possibility of not being able to remove excess aluminum from the product, the estimated yield percent would most likely be over 100%, but may be balanced out if any errors in the process of the trial take place. WORK CITED Source: Boundless. â€Å"Reaction Stoichiometry.†Boundless Chemistry. Boundless, 14 Nov. 2014. Retrieved 18 Apr. 2015 from https://www.boundless.com/chemistry/textbooks/boundless-chemistry-textbook/chemical-kinetics-13/reaction-rates-98/reaction-stoichiometry-414-3637/ http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/c120/stoichio.html http://www.iun.edu/~cpanhd/C101webnotes/quantchem/thtclandpctyld.html http://www.chemtutor.com/mols.htm

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Depression :1) a state of feeling sad : 2) a serious medical condition in which a person feels very sad, hopeless, and unimportant and often is unable to live in a normal way. Depression is a disturbance in a person’s feelings that will lead one to be unusually low, sad, or empty. Depressed mood is not classified as a psychiatric disorder although it could most certainly be a feature of clinical depression. The state of low mood a person feels can lead to suicidal thoughts, feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness, loss of interest in activities that were once pleasurable, and several other symptoms (3). The introduction of psychoactive drugs in the 1950’s started the era of using drugs to treat anxiety, psychosis, and the ever so popular, depression. The new answer for depression was quickly replaced from therapy, to drugs. After the creation of these drugs the world of psychiatry would forever be changed (1). The years following the surplus distribution of psychoactive drugs led to more research about these â€Å"miracle drugs.† Studies concluded that billions of neural networks in our brain are used to send and receive signals from other firing neurons (2). Several chemicals also called neurotransmitters are distributed throughout the brain. Neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin have been theorized to affect an individual’s mood levels. Depression patients are claimed to have less serotonin than those who are not depressed (3). The problem with this assumed theory is that instead of developing a drug to treat an irregularity, an irregularity was developed to suit a drug. An example of this used elsewhere is by perhaps appealing that all pain conditions are a problem due to lack of opiates (9). Antidepressants are used... ...r it (5). Many people do not realize that antidepressants are prescribed for other anxiety, neurological pain, fibromyalgia, and sleep problems. This should be taken in account when surveys are conducted as to how many antidepressants are prescribed (4). Antidepressants are serious drugs that should be prescribed when necessary and monitored carefully. In depression especially doctors should be sure that antidepressants will help their patients rather than harm them. Medicine should be used to help those who truly need it and not just be prescribed endlessly. Confronting psychological and sometimes physical pain from depression is necessary. Managing some of this pain through psychotherapy might help alleviate the need for so many antidepressants. Overall antidepressants will probably remain controversial and people should be educated about their pros and cons.

The Comparisons Of Charles Manson To Transcendental Philosophy :: essays research papers

The Comparisons of Charles Manson to Transcendental Philosophy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Charles Manson and various members of his â€Å"family† brutally killed several people from the Tate and LaBianca family on two seperate ocassions. The purposes of these killings are misunderstood by today's society, when ignoring Manson's philosophy. Although Manson never killed anyone, he went to prison in 1969 for masterminding the operation. Today's society has labeled Charles Manson as a mass-murderer who had no purpose through his cause. However, society overlooks the goal of Manson's plan, which included creating a better society. Manson continues to preach his cause through repeated parole attempts, behind the walls of a California prison where he resides currently. His cause remains unknown to many, but several of Manson's underlying themes coincide with earlier transcendental views.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many of Charles Manson's beliefs include creating a better society by reducing the size of the government, and preserving the role of an individual in society. This explains why Manson refused counsel at his trial, he represented himself until the judge found many of his motions â€Å"ludicrous† and appointed him an attorney. Manson preached that only he could represent himself, because no one could preserve his individuality. Mr. Manson lost his sixth amendment right to self-representation, and he uses this example now to prove that the individual rights of people are controlled and manipulated by the government.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The story of the â€Å"Manson Family† goes beyond the Tate/LaBianca murders, to years before the murders took place. Manson and his â€Å"family† would gather together in a house, when generally they would sit contently and listen to Charles preach. Usually the sermon would last for an hour or two and include stories and prophecies about the â€Å"revolution† that Manson felt was coming. Manson called this revolution helter skelter, after a Beatles song, which he felt told about the future of our society. Manson believed that the African- American members of our society were troublesome and would over-through the white race. Therefore, Manson began to prepare for helter skelter by informing his family. Instead of waiting for helter skelter, Manson wanted to prevent it by creating a utopian society that excluded the African-American race.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Above and beyond individuality, Manson felt that four important things needed preserved: air, water, trees, and animals. Mr. Manson commonly refers to these things as AWTA, and claims that his â€Å"family gave their lives to unite the brothers and sisters of the world† with these standards. The use of euphorics by Manson and his followers, provided an enhanced sense of individuality in an environment interacting with nature. Manson commonly used music to get his message out to other people, and generally, he would end a session with songs

Compare and Contrast Remember and A Birthday by Christina Rossetti Essa

Compare and Contrast Remember and A Birthday by Christina Rossetti Christina Rossetti was born in Victorian England and grew up in the pre-Raphaelite era. Coming from a well educated family she drew influence for her poems from her surroundings and experiences. In ‘A Birthday’, she looks at the celebration of finding new love. She is overjoyed because her love is reciprocated and wants to make a new beginning with this man spending the rest of her life with him raising a family. A Birthday is filled with joy, happiness and anticipation of what life will be like with her new love. Whereas ‘Remember’ is very different; she must prepare her lifelong lover/husband for her death. The tone of joy is therefore replaced by a much sadder tone reflecting her struggle and unhappiness. Both poems are carefully structured. ‘A birthday’ is written in two verses. The first verse contains three similes and a comparative and the second uses three imperatives (raise me, carve it, work it) and in the final lines of both verses the reason for the joy and making of the room are given. Whereas ‘Remember’ is a petrarchan sonnet. It consists of many short phrases and gentle words which further illustrates the feeling of tiredness. The punctuation and lines mirror her difficulties to speak throughout the poem. In ‘A Birthday’ repletion of the phrase ‘my heart’ is used, this is to illustrate the feelings in her heart of joy, happiness and excitement that her love has been reciprocated by the one she loves. It gives the idea that her heart is the most important thing at this moment and it is affecting the actions of the rest of her body. In contrast in ‘Remember’ the word ‘remember’ is repeated to emphasise the idea that when... ...ws at first he will spend every moment thinking and grieving for her but with the gradual progression of time he may forget her from time to time; and for this he ma feel guilty. She is thinking ahead to the time when he won’t think of her in the natural flow of time which is imperceptible to him. The fact he has now accepted she is going to die she can give him instructions and talk about death and the grave in a real way. Such as the idea of darkness in the grave and how the body will decompose. She asks him to hold her in his heart and record her in his everlasting memories this compares with the idea of responsibility that comes with love which is described in ‘A Birthday’. She finally reassure him that if he does forget her he won’t be a traitor to her because she wants him to be happy and doesn’t want her death to be the end of his happiness forever. Compare and Contrast Remember and A Birthday by Christina Rossetti Essa Compare and Contrast Remember and A Birthday by Christina Rossetti Christina Rossetti was born in Victorian England and grew up in the pre-Raphaelite era. Coming from a well educated family she drew influence for her poems from her surroundings and experiences. In ‘A Birthday’, she looks at the celebration of finding new love. She is overjoyed because her love is reciprocated and wants to make a new beginning with this man spending the rest of her life with him raising a family. A Birthday is filled with joy, happiness and anticipation of what life will be like with her new love. Whereas ‘Remember’ is very different; she must prepare her lifelong lover/husband for her death. The tone of joy is therefore replaced by a much sadder tone reflecting her struggle and unhappiness. Both poems are carefully structured. ‘A birthday’ is written in two verses. The first verse contains three similes and a comparative and the second uses three imperatives (raise me, carve it, work it) and in the final lines of both verses the reason for the joy and making of the room are given. Whereas ‘Remember’ is a petrarchan sonnet. It consists of many short phrases and gentle words which further illustrates the feeling of tiredness. The punctuation and lines mirror her difficulties to speak throughout the poem. In ‘A Birthday’ repletion of the phrase ‘my heart’ is used, this is to illustrate the feelings in her heart of joy, happiness and excitement that her love has been reciprocated by the one she loves. It gives the idea that her heart is the most important thing at this moment and it is affecting the actions of the rest of her body. In contrast in ‘Remember’ the word ‘remember’ is repeated to emphasise the idea that when... ...ws at first he will spend every moment thinking and grieving for her but with the gradual progression of time he may forget her from time to time; and for this he ma feel guilty. She is thinking ahead to the time when he won’t think of her in the natural flow of time which is imperceptible to him. The fact he has now accepted she is going to die she can give him instructions and talk about death and the grave in a real way. Such as the idea of darkness in the grave and how the body will decompose. She asks him to hold her in his heart and record her in his everlasting memories this compares with the idea of responsibility that comes with love which is described in ‘A Birthday’. She finally reassure him that if he does forget her he won’t be a traitor to her because she wants him to be happy and doesn’t want her death to be the end of his happiness forever.

Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process

Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process Prepared for Professor Suresh Radhakrishnan SPHR, MBA BUS 346 Business Communication San Fernando Valley Campus, Burbank, CA Prepared by Isaac Lowe 03-13-13 Table of Contents 1. Executive Summary †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ii 2. Overview of Compstat †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦1 3. Four Compstat Principles †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦1 4. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has established a uniform Crime Reporting †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2 5. Computing Year to Date (YTD) Weekl y Averages †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦2 6.Creating the Crime Summary Report †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 7. Analysis of Crime Data and Strategies †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦3 8. Crime Summary Report †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦4 9. Conclusion †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦8 10. References †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 9 List of Illustrations Figure 1 Crime Data Chart †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 4 Figure 2 Year to Date Crime Data Chart †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 i Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process Executive Summary Law enforcement has developed strategies to reduce crime by analyzing crime data.Law enforcement has named this crime reduction strategy as the Compstat process. The Compstat concept analyzes the number and location of crimes and arrests as well as an analysis of suspects, victims, days and times to identify crime patterns, clusters, suspects and hot spots. There are four Compstat principles that are in place to ef fectively reduce crime. To reduce crime by analyzing the crime data, a Crime Summary Report and Crime Maps need to be produced so law enforcement can analyze the crime data. When creating the Crime Summary Report, you will need to compute Year to Date (YTD) Weekly Averages.Once you have the YTD weekly average, you can examine your current crime data to see if crime is increasing or decreasing. By comparing the current crime to the previous amount of crime you can see if crime is up or down and determine if the crime reduction strategies in place are working or if adjustments need to be made. The Compstat process and the Crime Summary Report are tools used for crime reduction. ii Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process1 Overview of Compstat Law enforcement has developed strategies to reduce crime by analyzing crime data.Law enforcement has named this crime reduction strategy as the Compstat process. The Compstat process was developed by former New York Police Depart ment (NYPD) Commissioner William J. Bratton in the 1990’s. Compstat, stands for â€Å"Computer comparison statistics,† and is a system for managing police operations. The Compstat concept has been used widely in the law enforcement community in many different forms. The Compstat concept analyzes the number and location of crimes and arrests as well as an analysis of suspects, victims, days and times to identify crime patterns, lusters, suspects and hot spots. Law enforcement will create strategies to address the crime and implement it as quickly as possible. Law enforcement will consistently review, analyze the results and then repeat the process. This Compstat process can lead to the reduction of crime. Four Compstat Principles There are four Compstat principles that are in place to effectively reduce crime. The first principle is â€Å"Timely and Accurate Intelligence† which is knowing what crime is happening in your area. The Second principle is â€Å"Effect ive Tactics† which is having a game plan.The third principle is â€Å"Rapid Deployment† which is reacting quickly to where the crime is happening. The final principle is â€Å"Relentless Follow-up and Assessment† which is analyzing the results and making changes if needed. The first Compstat principle of â€Å"Accurate and Timely Intelligence† is to collect crime data in real time. Analysis the crime data and take action on identified crime trends. The crime data needs to be as accurate as possible. Without accurate and real time crime data, law enforcement will not be as effective in combating crime and implementing crime reduction strategies.Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process2 The second Compstat principle of â€Å"Effective Tactics† is the development and implementation of crime reduction strategies based on the real time accurate intelligence that was gathered. Law enforcement needs to deploy specific resources and proacti ve strategies to target the crime problem. The third Compstat principle of â€Å"Rapid Deployment† is to quickly deploy crime fighting resources and implement strategies to the target area. Law enforcement needs to deploy its resources to where the crime is occurring now.The fourth Compstat principle of â€Å"Relentless Follow-up and Assessment† is to assess the implementation of the strategies had on target area and analyze the results. By analyzing the strategies and reviewing the results, law enforcement can see if the strategies are working. This review process will help law enforcement improve and make real time adjustments to the strategies in place. FBI Established Uniform Crime Reporting To reduce crime by analyzing the crime data, a Crime Summary Report and Crime Maps need to be produced so law enforcement can analyze the crime data.The Crime Summary Report is divided into a summary for each individual crime. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has estab lished a uniform Crime Reporting Program which are Criminal Homicide, Forcible Rape, Robbery, Assault, Burglary, Larceny-Theft, Motor Vehicle Theft and Arson. These crimes are also known as â€Å"Part One† crimes. Computing Year to Date Weekly Averages When creating the Crime Summary Report, you will need to compute Year to Date (YTD) Weekly Averages. To do this, you will examine the collected crime data and see what the total number was for the specific crime that you are going to examine.Take that YTD total number for that specific crime and divide it by the total week’s crime data of that specific crime. The outcome will be the YTD weekly average. Once you have the YTD weekly average, you can examine your current crime data to Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process3 see if crime is increasing or decreasing. Here is an example of the weekly average formula that you will use when computing the crime data for each specific crime: YTD Crime Total (137 ) / Crime Total for the week (7) = YTD Weekly Average (19. ). This formula will be used throughout the Crime Summary Report to obtain the YTD Weekly Averages for each crime summary. Creating the Crime Summary Report To start creating the Crime Summary Report, first, impute the 2012 and 2013 YTD Part One Averages on the top of the report so you can see the overall crime trend. Second, create a Crime Data Charts from the collected Crime Data. Next, provide an overall summary of all Part One Crime Data. Then give a summary of the Part One Violent Crime summary and Part One Property Crime Summary.Next, provide a brief summary of the each individual crime within Part One Violent and Part One Property Crimes. This brief summary will include an Analysis of the crime data and a Strategy of how to target the current crime problem. Analysis of Crime Data and Strategies The Analysis section of the Crime Summary Report is where you will be analyzing the crime data. By examining the Crime Maps o f where the crime occurred and the Crime Data you will be able to provide a written summary of the crime trend. In Analysis section you will also be using the weekly average formula to help you examine the Crime Data.The Strategies section of the Crime Summary Report is where you will be explaining your strategies to combat the current crime trends. The following is a Crime Summary Report that I have completed for the 9th week of 2013, ending 03/02/13,that can be referred to for an example. Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process4 Crime Summary Report 9th week of 2013 ending: 03/02/2013 20132012 Average Year to Date (YTD) Weekly Part 1 Crime Totals:65. 576. 0 [pic] Figure 1: Crime Data Chart [pic] Figure 2: Year to Date Crime Chart Part One Crime SummaryPart-One Crimes (61) were above the week prior and are below the 2013 Year To Date (YTD) Weekly Average and below the 2012 YTD Weekly Average. There were (3) gang related Robberies and there Reducing and Analyzing C rime Through the Compstat Process5 was (2) gang related Aggravated Assaults this week. The central portions of the Division continues to account for the majority of the part one crime. Part One Violent Crimes (27) were above the week prior and are above the 2013 YTD Weekly Average of (21. 1) and above the 2012 YTD Weekly Average of (22. 2). Robberies increased this week and were mainly in central portion of the Division.Aggravated Assaults increased this week and were mostly spread out through the central portion of the Division. There were no Rapes and Homicides this week. Part One Property Crimes (34) were below the week prior and are below the 2013 YTD weekly average of (44. 6) and below the 2012 YTD Weekly Average of (53. 7). This week BTFV’s decreased with no major clusters. GTA increased slightly this week and were mainly spread out through the western portion of the Division. Burglaries decreased this week with no major clusters. Thefts increased this week and there wa s a small cluster in the central portion of the Division.Part One Violent Crime Summary HOMICIDE: 0 Analysis:None. Strategies:None. RAPE: 0 Analysis:None. Strategies:None. ASSAULTS: 11 Analysis: Aggravated Assaults are above the 2013 weekly average of (7. 1). Aggravated Assaults increased this week and were mainly in the central portion of the Division. Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process6 Strategies: Request patrol & specialized units to continue drinking in public enforcement in directed areas. Officers will be directed to specific areas as needed to suppress the Aggravated Assault problem. ROBBERY: 16 Analysis:Robberies are above the 2013 Weekly Average of (13). Robberies increased this week and were mainly in the central portion of the Division. Strategies: Officer will be directed to specific areas as needed to suppress the Robbery problem. Request Gang Unit to enforce on all gang related crime. Narcotic Unit will conduct undercover operations to specific areas where the Robberies are occurring. Part One Property Crime Summary GRAND THEFT AUTO: 8 Analysis: Grand Theft Auto (GTA) are above the 2013 Weekly Average of (7. 6) and were mainly spread out through the western portion of the Division. Strategies:Officers will be directed to specific areas as needed to suppress the GTA problem. Officers will continue to receive updated GTA stolen vehicle list. The License Plate Recognition Vehicles will continue to be deployed in designated areas. Rampart Special Problems Unit (SPU) and Auto Detectives will also arrange a Bait Car Operation when the bait car is available. BURGLARY THEFT FROM VEHICLE: 4 Analysis: Burglary Theft From Vehicle (BTFV) are below the 2013 Weekly Average of (15. 0). This week BTFV’s decreased with no major clusters. Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process7 Strategies:Officers will be directed through the daily mission to suppress the BTFV problem. Senior Lead Officers will continue the â€Å" Lock it, Hide it, Keep it† flyer campaign. Detectives will utilize Social Media to reach and educate as many community members as possible. Auto Detectives will arrange a Bait Car Operation when the bait car is available. BURGLARY: 2 Analysis: Burglaries are below the 2013 Weekly Average of (4. 6) with no major clusters. Strategies: Officers will be directed through the daily mission as needed to suppress the Burglary problem.Senior Lead Officers (SLO) will continue the â€Å"Lock it, Hide it, Keep it† flyer campaign. Detectives will utilize Social Media to reach and educate as many community members as possible. THEFTS: 20 Analysis: Thefts are above the 2013 Weekly Average of (17. 3) and were mainly spread out through the Division with a small cluster in the central portion of the Division. Strategies: Officers will be directed through the Daily Mission as needed. The decoy car will continue to be deployed in the major shopping centers. Officers will continue to drive through major parking lots of the shopping centers.SLO will continue to walk through businesses on a daily bases and continue to meet with the personnel. The Bike Unit will provide high visibility patrol in the parking lots of the shopping centers. -End of Crime Summary Report- Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process8 After reading the Crime Summary Report we can see how through analyzing the Crime Data and Crime Maps we are able to effectively write a written summary of the crime trends. Furthermore, we are able to analyze our strategies to see if they are effective. The Crime Summary Report gives us a comprehensive account of the current crime trends.Conclusion In conclusion, to successfully reduce the incidence of crime, it is done through comparing the numbers of the current crime to the previous amount of crime. Whether crime is up or down, will help determine if the crime reduction strategies are working or if adjustments need to be made so a different approa ch can be implemented. The Compstat process and the Crime Summary Report are tools used for crime reduction by counting, comparing and mapping crime data for law enforcement to analyze. Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process9 References Los Angeles Police Department’s Compstat Unit. 2010, March 09). The Compstat Process – Managing Crime Reduction on the LAPD. George Gascon. (2006, January 25). Compstat Plus. David Weisburd, Stephen D. Mastrofski, Rosann Greenspan, and James J. Willis. (2004, April). The Growth of Compstat in American Policing. LAPD Website. Compstat process information Retrieved March, 08, 2013, from http://www. lapdonline. org William J. Bratton and Sean W. Malinowski. Police Performance Management in Practice: Taking COMPSTAT to the Next Level Vincent E. Henry. (2002) A comprehensive study of Compstat in police history and reform